Addressing the grammar gap in task work

Addressing the grammar gap in task work
A current interest in methodology is task-based teaching. Learner’s grammar needs are determined on the basis of task performance rather than through a predetermined grammar syllabus. Grammatical syllabuses were superseded by communicative ones based on functions or tasks such as presentation-production-production as well as drills and grammar practice (accuracy activities). This led to “fluency-fist” pedagogy in which students’ grammar needs are on the basis of performance fluency tasks.
From grammar-focused to task-focused instruction
The differences between traditional grammar-focused activities and communicative tasks are as follows:
Grammar-focused activities
˙reflect typical classroom use of language
˙focus on the formation of correct examples
˙monitored speech style
˙don not require authentic communication
Communicative tasks
˙reflect natural language use
˙colloquial speech style
˙require improving, repair and reorganization
˙allow students to select language they use
Task work is seen as a part of linguistic and communicative competence development.

Second thoughts about task work
The researcher found that little evidence showed negotiation for meaning is not a strategy that language learners are influenced to employ when they encounter gaps in their understanding. Accurate grammar use is not necessary in such a grammar-gap task. These strategies provide an effective incentive to make best use of language that already have but it doesn’t encourage them to focus on form.

Grammar in relation to second language acquisition processes
Inpputàintakeàacquisitionàaccessàoutput
Input: language sources used to initiated the language learning process.
At the input stage, an attempt may be made to focus learners’ attention on particular features of inputs.
Intake: subset of the input that is comprehended and attended to in some way. Those items are needed to meet certain criteria such as complexity(appropriate level of difficulty), saliency(be noticed or attended to), frequency(be experienced frequently) and need(fulfill a communacative need).
Acquisition: the learner incorporate a new learning item into his or her developing system ot interlanguage.
˙noticing the difference between forms they are using and targetlike forms.
˙discivering rules of target language
˙make those into long-term memory
˙much output to experiment such as role play.
Access: learner’s ability to utilize the interlanguage system during communocation which includes making use of the developing system to create output.
Output: observed result

Addressing grammar within task work
Focus on form entails a prerequisite in meaning before attention to linguistic features.
˙exposure to appropriate level of difficulty
˙meaning-focused interaction
˙opportunies for learners to attend to inguistic form
˙opporrtunities to expand the sources

Addresing accuracy prior to,during and after the task

Reference
Richard J.C. Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary. In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds)Methodology in Language Teaching(pp. 153-164) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning

Best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning Paul Nation
A well-balanced course should contain four major strands: meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, fluency development and language-docused instruction.
The aim is to show how the vocabulary component of a language course fits into these strands.

Vocabulary and meaning-focused input
Reading has been a long major source of vocabularu growth. For sevaral reasons, there is a fragility to this kind of learning.
1. Research with native speakers shows the amount of vocabulary learning that occurs during the reading text is rather small.
It is likely to cumulative if there are repeated opportunities to meet the partially learned vocabulary again. There will be a close relationship between vocabulary growth and the amount and variety of meaning-focused input.
2. It depends heavily on the qualiy of the learners’ control to the reading skill.
There is little vocabulary growth through reading while learners gain control of reading skill. One of the major barriers is vocabulary size. It allows second language learners to draw on the reading skill developed in theor first language to expand their vicabulary in second language by providing series of graded readers with careful vocabulary control.
3. The type reading that is done will strongly influence vocabulary learning.
Deliberately drawing attention to language items as a part of the language system makes learning more certain. Relying too much on mraning-focused input is leaving too much to chance.
Best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning is provideing large quantities of suitably graded input through a range of genrals and topics, and providing language-focused activities to support it.

Vocabulary and meaning-focused output
The spoken production of vocabulary items helps learning. The fondings of spoken communicative activities are as follows:
1. The written input to a communicative task has a major effect on what vocabulary is used and negociated during the task.
2. Vocabulary was learned through being used productively and receptively.
3. The more the vocabulary is observed or used in contexts which differ from its occurrence in the written input, the better it is learned.
4. Learners are able to provide useful information to each other on most of the vocabulary in a typical communocative task.
5. Learners who actively negociate the meaning of unknown words do not seem to learn more than learners who observe the negociation.
6. Only a small amount of negociation in a communicative task is negociation of word meaning.
By carefully designing and monotoring the use of the handout sheets for spoken tasks, teachers can have a major influence on determing what vocabuary could be learned from such tasks.

Devaloping fluency with vocabulary
Fluency development tasks have the characteristics of involving no new language items , dealing with largely faniliar content and discourse types. (meaning-focused tasks) the learners’ focus is on the message and are envourage to reach a higher than usual level of performance, through the use of repetetion, time pressure, preparation and planing.

Vocabulary and language-focused instruction
Language-focused instruction occurs when learners direct attention to language items not for producing or comprehending a particular message, but for gaining knowledge about the item as a part of the language system. Language-focuse inatrustion includes focusing on the pronounciation and spelling, learning the meaning of words, memorizinf collocations, phrases and sentences containing a word and being corrected for incorrect use of a word. First, it can affect implicit knowledge of a language and second, it can raise learners’ consciousness or awareness of particular itemsso that they are then more readily noticed when occur in meaning-docused input.
The third dffect of language-focused is indirect: implicit knowled.each suggestion as follows is matched with its likely effect on implicit knowledge.
˙Guessiong unknown words from context: To guess the meaning from the context rather than the underlying meaning.
˙Learning the meanings of unknown words: explicit, decontexualize study of vocabulary
˙Study the word parts and mnemonic devoces: Knowledge of these word parts such as prefixes and suffixes can be used to improve the learning of many words through relating unknow word forms and meanings to known word parts.

Reference

Nation P. Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary. In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds)Methodology in Language Teaching(pp. 267-272) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary

There are three approaches to vocabulary instruction and learning: incidental learning, explicit instruction and independent strategy development.
Definition
A word: is defined as including its base form, inflection and derivatives.
Incidental learning: The teacher provides opportunities for extensive reading and listening. (for more proficient intermediate and advanced students)
Explicit instruction: Diagnosing words learners need to know, presenting words for the first time, elaborating word knowledge and developing fluency with know words. (best for beginning and intermediate students who have limited vocabulary)
Independent strategy development: Practicing guessing from context and training learners to use dictionaries. (Dictionary training should begin early in the curriculum)

Incidental learning
Principle1: provide opportunities for incidental learning of vocabulary
Although most research concentrates on reading, extensive listening can also increase vocabulary learning. L2 learners can be expected to require many exposures to a word in context before understand its meaning. Low-proficiency learners can benefit from graded readers because they will be repeatedly exposed to high-frequency vocabulary.

Explicit instruction
Principle2: diagnose which of the 3,000 most common words learners need to study
Knowing approximately 3,000 high-frequency and general academic words is significant because this amount covers a high percentage of the words on an average page.
Principle3: provide opportunities for the intentional learning of vocabulary
The first stage in teaching these 3,000 commonly begins with word pairs in which an L2 word is matched with an L1 translation. Translation has a necessary role in L2 learning, but it can hinder learners’ progress if it’s used to exclusion of L2-based techniques. When teaching unfamiliar words, teachers should consider the following: 1. learners should see not only the form bit also the pronunciation and practice saying the word aloud. 2. Start by learning semantically unrelated words. Also avoid learning words with similar forms, closely related or contrast meanings at the same time. 3. it’s more effective to study words regularly over several short sections than to study them for one or two longer sessions. Repetition and review should take place almost immediately after studying a word for the first time. 4. Study 5-7words at a time. 5. Use activities such as keyword technique to promote deeper processing. 6. A wide variety of L2 information can be added to the word cards for further elaboration.
Principle4: provide opportunities for elaborating words knowledge
Knowing a word means not just knowing the translated meaning but also related grammatical patterns, lexical sets and how to use words receptively and productively. Receptive knowledge means being able to recognize one of the aspects of knowledge through reading and listening. Productive knowledge means being able to use it in speaking and writing.
Principle5: provide opportunities for developing fluency with known vocabulary
Fluency-building activities recycle already known words in familiar grammatical and organizational patterns so that students can focus on recognizing or using words without hesitation.

Independent strategy development
Principle6: experiment with guessing from context
To guess successfully, learners need to know about 19 out of every 20words (95%) of a text. a procedure of guessing begins with deciding whether the word is important enough to warrant going through the e subsequent steps. 1. Determing the part of speech of the unknown word. 2. look the immediate context and simplified it if necessary. 3. Look at wider context. 4. Guess the meaning. 5. Check out the guess is correct
Principle7: examine different types of dictionaries and teach student how to use them
Bilingulized dictionaries may have some advantages over traditional bilingual or monolingual dictionaries. Bilingulized dictionaries essentially do the job of both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. The learners’ attention should a;so be directed toward those good sentences to learn collocational, grammatical and pragmatic information about words.

Reference
Hunt A. and Beglar D. (1998). Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary. In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds)Methodology in Language Teaching(pp. 258-266) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

R:Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary
I agree what a word includes translated meaning, base form, inflection and derivatives so learners should learn those related knowledge when they are learning a word. I also think extensive reading and listening could expose learners to high-frequency words so they have chances to remember them when it comes to explicit instruction, it‘s a important fact that learners know base 3,000 to support them in extensive reading. What’s more, by those fluency-building activities, students could use those intentional words more fluently and we need to elaborate related knowledge of vocabulary, too. However, I don’t think that “Start by learning semantically unrelated words. Also avoid learning words with similar forms, closely related or contrast meanings at the same time.” If learners are very beginners, we had better not confuse them with related words but if learners know numbers of vocabulary, we had better teach those related words to help them tell those differences and make them memorize those words systematically. I tutor my students mainly by explicit instruction to build their knowledge about intentional words because they are low-intermediate learners. At the same time, I’ve built their strategy of guessing the meaning from context and reinforce the importance of sentences as learning vocabulary. Now, they start to pat more attention to sentences which was listed on vocabulary list. Then I plan to ask them read a short article every week to have them expose to high-frequency words by extensive reading.

Grammar Teaching－Practice or Consciousness-Raising?

The definition of practice: the practice stage consists of series exercises…whose aim is to absorb the structure thoroughly. Practice activities include mechanical practice, contextualized practice and communicative practice. Practice has the following characters:
1. There is some attempt to isolate a specific grammar for focused attention.
2. The learners are required to produce sentences containing the target features.
3. The learners will be provided with opportunities for repetition the target features.
4. There is an expectancy that learners will perform the grammatical feature correctly. Therefore, activities are “success oriented.”
5. The learners receive feedback on whether their performance of grammatical structure is correct or not. This feedback may be immediate or delayed.
The definition of consciousness-raising: it involves an attempt to equip the learner with understanding of a specific grammar-to develop a declarative rather than procedural knowledge of it. The main characters are following:
1. There is an attempt to isolate a specific grammar for focused attention.
2. The learners are provided with data which illustrate the target and they may also be supplied with an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature.
3. The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the target feature.
4. Misunderstanding and incomplete understanding of the grammatical structure by the learners leads to clarification in the form of further data and description or explanation.
5. Learners may be required to articulate the rule describing the grammatical structure.
The main difference between practice and consciousness-raising is that consciousness-raising doesn’t involve the learner in repeated production. This is because the aim of consciousness-raising is not to enable the learner to perform a structure correctly but simply to help him to know about it. However, the two types of grammar works can involve a combination of practice and consciousness-raising. Many methodologists recommend practice work be preceded by a presentation stage. This presentation stage may involve an inductive or deductive treatment of the structure. Also practice work can be rounded off with a formal explanation of the structure.
Dose practice works?
Practice does not result in the autonomous ability to use the structure. In other words, practicing a grammatical structure under controlled conditions doesn’t seem to enable the leaner to use structure freely. Practice will often not lead to immediate procedural knowledge of grammatical rules.
The case of consciousness-raising
The goal of practice activities is to develop automatical control of grammatical structures that will enable learners to use them productively and spontaneously. Practice is directed at the acquisition of implicit knowledge of a grammatical structure. Consciousness-raising is directed at the formation of explicit knowledge the construction of explicit may help the learner perform perfectly in some tests but it is not much useful when it comes to communicating. Although consciousness-raising doesn’t contribute to implicit knowledge, it facilitates the acquisition of grammatical knowledge needed for communication. Consciousness-raising is unlikely to result in immediate acquisition but have a delayed effect. There are limitations to consciousness-raising. It may not be appropriate for young learners or beginners. It can only be used with beginners if the learners’ first language is used as the medium to solve tasks.

Reference
Ellis, R. Grammar Teaching－Practice or Consciousness-Raising? In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds)Methodology in Language Teaching(pp. 167-174) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Seven Bad Reasons for Teaching Grammar－and Two Good Ones

By Michael Swan
Summary
Grammar is important but most of the time people probably teach too much of it. Swan thinks we can identify at least seven reasons for this.
Seven bad reasons
1. Because it's there
Teachers think because it’s there so it has to be taught. But the grammar points in the course book may not all be equally important for particular students because the book may have been designed for students with different purposes and in different environments. A famous experiment shows that nonnative teachers for English often regard grammar errors as more serious problems which often trouble native non-teachers.
2. It's tidy
Grammar looks tidy and is relatively teachable. Grammar can be presented as a limited series of tidy things which students can learn, apply in exercises, and tick off one by one. Learning grammar is a lot simpler than learning a language.
3. It's testable
It’s hard to value your own progress in a foreign language and a good test can tell you how you are doing. On the other hand, grammar tests are relatively simple so grammar is often used as a test and because of washback effect of testing, this adds to pressure to teach it.
4. Grammar as a security blanket
In the convoluted landscape of a foreign language, grammar rules gave students the feeling they can understand and control what’s going on. However, the security blanket aspect can lead students and teachers to concentrate on grammar to the detriment of other aspect of the language.
5. It made me who I am
If you have struggled to learn something, you feel it must be important. Many foreign language teachers spent a good deal of time when younger learning about grammar. They feel these things matter a good deal. In this way, the tendency of an earlier generation to overvalue grammar can be perpetuated.
6. You have to teach the whole lesson
People often think all of grammar should be learnt if it is to work properly, but it is more realistic to regard grammar as an accumulation of different elements. We should teach selected subsystems, asking for each: 1. How much of this should students know already from their native language? 2. How much of the rest is important? 3. How much of that have we got time for? To try to teach the whole system is to ignore these three questions.
7. Power
Some teachers enjoy the power. A teacher nay have a worse accent, less vocabulary and fewer idioms than some of his students but there is always grammar to fall back on. Some teachers feel they win by knowing complicated rules of grammar and terminology.
Two good reasons
1. Comprehensibility
Knowing how to build and use certain structures makes it possible to communicate common types of meaning successfully.
2. Acceptability
In some social context, serious deviance from native-speaker norms can hinder integration and excite prejudice. A person who speaks badly may be considered uneducated and stupid. Students may thus want or need a higher level of grammatical correctness.

Reference
Swan, M. (2001). Seven bad reasons for teaching grammar - and two good ones. In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds)Methodology in Language Teaching(pp. 148-152) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.